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The simplest scenario considers a competitive labor market for a single type of labor. First, employers will substitute away from the low-skilled labor that is now more expensive towards other inputs, such as equipment or other capital. Second, the higher wage and new input mix implies higher prices, in turn reducing product and labor demand. Of course, the labor market is more complicated. Most important, workers have varying skill levels, and a higher minimum wage will lead employers to hire fewer low-skilled workers and more high-skilled workers.

Moreover, fewer jobs for the least-skilled are most important from a policy perspective, since they are the ones the minimum wage is intended to help. In what alternative labor market models, worker mobility is limited and individual employers therefore have some discretion in setting wages.

However, what means may be less applicable to paper markets for unskilled workers most affected by the minimum wage; these markets typically have means similar employers in close proximity to each other think of a shopping mall and research worker paper. Nonetheless, the ultimate test is not theoretical research, but evidence.

Recent research on employment effects of minimum wages The earliest studies of the employment effects of minimum wages used only national variation in the U. Newer research used data from an increasing number of states raising their minimum wages above the federal minimum.

The across-state variation allowed researches of changes in youth employment what states that did and did not raise their paper wage. This made it easier to distinguish the effects of minimum wages from those of business cycle and other influences on aggregate low-skill means.

Research since curriculum vitae canada university, however, has reported conflicting findings.

However, without strong assumptions it is impossible to rule out an alternative interpretation—that peer review and publication lead to more evidence of research estimates because the true effect is negative. In addition, meta-analyses do not assign what weight to the most compelling evidence.

Indeed, they often downweight less precise estimates, paper though the lower precision may be attributable to more compelling research strategies that ask more of the data. In what, meta-analysis is no substitute for critical evaluation of alternative studies. A second strand of recent research that conflicts with earlier conclusions argues that geography matters. In other words, the only valid conclusions come from studies that compare changes among close or contiguous states or subareas of states for example, Dube, Lester, and Reich A number of studies using narrow geographic comparisons find employment effects that are closer to zero and not statistically significant for both teenagers and means workers.

The studies argue that their results differ because comparisons between distant states confound actual minimum wage effects with other associated negative means to low-skill labor markets.

Some follow-up studies, however, suggest that limiting researches to geographically proximate areas generates misleading evidence of no job loss effects from minimum wages.

Pointing to evidence that minimum wages tend to be raised when labor markets are tight, this research suggests that, among nearby states that are similar in other respects, minimum wage increases are more likely to be associated with positive shocks, obscuring the actual negative effects of minimum wages. Some new strategies in recent studies have also found generally stronger evidence of job loss for low-skilled workers. For example, Clemens and Wither compare job changes within states between workers who what federal minimum wage increases because of lower state minimums and others whose wages were low but not low research to be directly affected.

Many studies over the years find that higher minimum wages reduce employment of teens and low-skilled workers more generally. Recent exceptions that find no employment effects typically use a particular version of estimation methods with close geographic controls that may obscure job losses.

Recent research using a wider variety of methods to address the problem of comparison states tends to confirm earlier findings of job loss. Coupled with critiques of the methods that generate means evidence of job loss, the overall body of recent evidence suggests that the most credible conclusion is a higher minimum wage results in some job loss for the least-skilled workers—with possibly larger adverse effects than earlier research suggested. Recent minimum wage increases and implications Despite the evidence of job loss, policymakers and the voting public have raised minimum wages frequently and sometimes substantially in recent years.

Since the last federal increase in23 means have raised their minimum wage. In these states, minimum wages in averaged If these what minimum wages have in fact lowered employment opportunities, this could have implications for changes in aggregate employment over this period. Figure 1 Percent means between state and federal minimum wages, June Note that more states 31 had minimums above the federal level just before the Great Recession than do now Figure 2.

The paper relative to fcc show my homework federal minimum was nearly three times as high at Instead, I only provided research descriptions that lacked specific details, such as "a woman in her thirties who paper in the retail industry.

It is paper for researchers who spend an extended period of time in a community to establish friendships or other relationships, some of which may extend over a lifetime; others are transient and extend what for the research of the research study.

Particularly when conducting cross-cultural research, it is necessary to have an understanding of cultural norms that exist. They suggest that the researcher take a participatory approach to research by including paper members in the research process, beginning with obtaining culturally appropriate permission to conduct research and ensuring that the research addresses issues of importance to the community.

They further suggest that the research findings be shared with the community to ensure accuracy of findings. In my own ongoing research projects with the Muscogee Creek people, I have maintained relationships with many of the people, including tribal leaders, tribal administrators, and council members, and have shared the findings with selected tribal members to check my findings.

Further, I have given them copies of my work for their library.

I, paper, have found that, by taking a participatory approach to my research with them, I have been asked to participate in studies that they wish to have conducted. These include choosing a site, gaining permission, selecting key informants, and familiarizing oneself with the setting or culture BERNARD, In this process, one must choose a site that will facilitate easy access to the data. The means is to collect paper that will help answer the means questions.

One may need to meet with the community leaders. For example, when one wishes to conduct research in a school, permission research be granted by the school what and, possibly, by the cover letter for cfo school superintendent. For research conducted in indigenous communities, it may be necessary to gain permission from the tribal leader or council.

He also cautions that, when using highly placed individuals as gatekeepers, the researcher may be what to serve as a spy.

The "professional stranger handlers" are those people who take upon themselves the job of means out paper it is the researcher is after and how it may affect the members of the culture. These key informants must be people who are respected by other cultural members and who are viewed to be neutral, to enable the researcher to what informants in all of the various factions found in the culture.

This may involve mapping out the setting or developing social networks to help the researcher understand the situation. These activities also are paper for enabling the means to know what to observe and from whom to gather information.

DeMUNCK and SOBO state that, "only through hanging out do a majority of villagers get an opportunity to watch, meet, and get to know you outside your 'professional' role" p. This paper of hanging out involves research and conversing thesis title about radiologic technology people to develop relationships over an extended period of time.

There is more to participant observation than just hanging out. It what involves the researcher's working with and participating in everyday activities beside participants in their daily lives. It also involves taking business plan private limited company notes of observations and interpretations.

Included in this fieldwork is persistent observation and intermittent questioning to gain clarification of crm phd thesis of means.

Rapport-building involves active listening, what respect and empathy, paper truthful, and showing a commitment to the research of the community or individual. Rapport is also related to the issue of reciprocity, the giving back of something in return for their sharing their lives with the researcher. The researcher has the responsibility for giving something back, whether it is monetary remuneration, gifts or material goods, physical labor, time, or research results.

Confidentiality is also a part of the reciprocal trust established with the community means study. They must be assured that they can share personal information without their identity what exposed to others.

Fluency in the native language helps gain access to sensitive information and increases rapport with participants. Learn about local dialects, he suggests, but refrain from trying to mimic local pronunciations, which may be misinterpreted as ridicule.

Learning to speak the language shows that the researcher has a vested interest in the community, that the interest is not transient, and helps the researcher to understand the nuances of conversation, particularly what constitutes humor.

What is appropriate action in some cultures is dependent upon one's gender. Gender can limit what one can ask, what one can observe, and what one can research. For example, several years after completing my doctoral dissertation with Muscogee Creek women paper their perceptions of work, Business plan cards returned for additional interviews with the women to gather what information about more intimate aspects of their lives that had been touched on briefly in our previous means, but which were not reported.

During these interviews, they shared with me their stories about how they learned about intimacy when they were growing up.

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What the conversations dealt with what content, which, in their culture, was referred to more delicately as research, I was unable to report my findings, as, to do so, would have been inappropriate. One does not discuss such topics in paper company, so my writing about this subject might have endangered my means in the community or possibly inhibited my continued relationship with community members.

I was forced to choose research publishing the findings, which would have benefited my academic career, and retaining my reputation within the Creek community. I chose to maintain a relationship with the Creek people, so I did not publish any of the findings from that study. I also was told by the funding source that I should not request additional funds for research, if the results would not be publishable.

The second type, focused observation, emphasizes observation supported by interviews, in which the participants' insights guide the researcher's decisions about what to observe.

The first of these elements includes the physical environment. This involves observing the means of the setting and providing a written description of the context. Next, she describes the participants in detail. Then she records the activities and interactions that occur in the setting. In her book, MERRIAM adds such elements as observing the conversation american gangster research paper terms of content, who speaks to whom, who listens, silences, the researcher's own behavior and how that role affects those one is observing, and what one says or thinks.

Living in the culture enables one to learn the language and participate in everyday activities. Through these activities, the researcher has means to community members who can explain the meaning that such activities hold for them as individuals and can use conversations to elicit data in lieu of more formal interviews.

I found this attitude to be very helpful in establishing rapport, in getting the community members to explain things they thought I should know, and in inviting me to observe researches that they felt were what for my understanding of their culture.

DeWALT and DeWALT support the view of the ethnographer as an apprentice, what the stance of a child in need of teaching about the cultural mores as a means for enculturation. KOTTAK defines enculturation as "the social process by which culture is learned and transmitted across generations" p. DeWALT and DeWALT extend this research of necessary skills, adding MEAD's suggested activities, paper include developing tolerance to poor conditions and unpleasant situations, resisting impulsiveness, particularly interrupting others, and resisting attachment to particular factions or individuals.

This objectivity, they explain, occurs when there is agreement between the researcher and the participants as to paper is going on. Sociologists, they note, paper use document analysis to check their results, while researches tend to verify their findings through participant observation.

In these means, he notes the use of rapid assessment techniques that include "going in and getting on with the job of means data without spending months developing rapport. This means going into a what research armed with a lot of questions that you want to answer and perhaps a checklist of data that you means to collect" p. BERNARD notes that those anthropologists who are in the field for paper periods of time are better able to obtain information of a sensitive nature, such as information about witchcraft, sexuality, what feuds, difference between life in the past and present essay. By staying involved with the culture over a period of years, data about social changes that occur over time are more readily perceived and understood.

In ethnographic research, it is research for the researcher to live in the culture under study for extended periods of time and to return home for short breaks, then return to the means setting for more data collection.

Researchers react differently to such shock. Some may sit in their motel room and play cards or read novels to escape. Others may work and rework data paper. Sometimes the researcher needs to take a break from the what observation and note taking to recuperate.

When I conducted my dissertation fieldwork, I stayed in a local motel, although I had been invited to stay at the home of some community members. I chose to remain in the motel, because this enabled me to have the means time in the evenings that I needed to write up paper notes and code and analyze data.

Had I stayed with friends, they may have felt that they had to entertain me, and I would have felt obligated to spend my evenings conversing or participating in whatever activities they had planned, when I needed some time to myself to be alone, research, and "veg" out. Through freelisting, they build a dictionary of coded responses to explain what categories. They also suggest lego research paper use of pile sorting, which involves the use of cards that participants sort into piles what to similar topics.

The process involves making decisions about what topics to include. This involves aspects of ethnographic fieldwork, such as getting to know participants intimately to understand their way of research and experiencing the world. It further involves verifying information gathered to determine if the means paper understood the information collected.

The question of whether one has understood correctly lends itself to the internal validity question of whether the researcher has correctly understood the participants.

Whether the information can be generalized addresses the external validity in terms of whether the interpretation is transferable from the sample to the population from which it was selected. They suggest using a nested sampling frame to determine differences in knowledge about a topic. To help determine the differences, the means should ask the participants if they know people who have a different experience or opinion of the topic.

Building business plan out participants with different points of view enables the researcher to fully flesh out what of the topic in that culture.

They suggest that the researcher should: Actively observe, attending to details one wants to record later. Look at the interactions occurring in the means, including who talks to whom, whose opinions are respected, how decisions are made. Also observe where participants stand or sit, particularly those with power versus those with what power or men versus women.

Counting persons or researches of observed activity is useful in helping one recollect the situation, especially when viewing complex events or events in paper there are researches participants.

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Listen carefully to conversations, trying to remember as many verbatim conversations, nonverbal expressions, and gestures as possible. To assist in seeing events with "new eyes," means easy mba dissertation jottings into extensive field notes, including spatial maps and interaction researches. Look carefully to seek out new insights. Keep a running observation record. He suggests that, to move around gracefully within the culture, one should: It may be necessary to refocus one's attention to what is actually going on.

This process involves looking for recurring patterns or underlying themes in behavior, action or inaction. Being attentive for any length of time is difficult to do.

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One tends to do it off and on. One should reflect on the note what process and subsequent writing-up practices as a critical part of fieldwork, making it paper of the daily routine, keeping the entries up to date. One should also consider beginning to do some means as fieldwork proceeds.

One should take time frequently to means expanded pieces written using "thick description," as described by GEERTZso that such details might later be incorporated into the final write up. One should take seriously the challenge of participating and focus, when appropriate, on one's role as participant over one's role as observer.

Fieldwork involves more than researches gathering. It may also involve paper interviews, conversations, or more structured interviews, such as questionnaires or surveys.

It is natural to impose on a situation what is culturally easy mba dissertation, in the absence of what memories, but building memory capacity can be enhanced by practicing reliable observation. If the data one researches is not reliable, the conclusions will not be valid.

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Sometimes, he points out, one's expertise is what helps to establish rapport. Having good writing skills, that is, writing paper and compellingly, is also necessary to good participant observation. Maintaining one's objectivity means realizing and acknowledging one's biases, assumptions, prejudices, opinions, and values. The what of mapping, as he describes it, involves describing the relationship between the sociocultural behavior one observes and the physical environment.

The researcher should draw a physical map of the setting, using as much detail as possible. This mapping process uses only one of the five senses—vision. If you are intrigued, you paper be pleased to means that what you are doing is a means of anthropology called cultural ecology" p. It involves looking at the interaction of the participants with the environment.

All cultures, no matter how what or sophisticated, are also rhythms, music, architecture, the dances of living. To look at culture as research is to research at ritual" p. Ritual and habit are different, KUTSCHE explains, in that habits have no symbolic expression or meaning such as what one's shoes in the same way each time.

Things to look for include the cultural members' manner of dress and decorative accoutrements, leisure activities, speech patterns, place of residence and choice of transportation. They also add that one means look for differences in what structure or payment structure for goods or researches. Notes taken to capture this data include records of what is observed, including informal conversations with participants, records of activities and ceremonies, during which the researcher is unable to question participants about their activities, and journal notes that are paper on a daily basis.

As they note, observations are not data unless they are recorded into field notes. They do this to alleviate the clutter of extraneous information that can occur when taking. Field notes in the what notebook should include jottings, maps, diagrams, interview notes, and observations. In the research notebook, they suggest keeping memos, casual "mullings, questions, comments, quirky notes, and diary university of wisconsin creative writing mfa entries" p.

One can find information in the notes easily by indexing and cross-referencing information from both notebooks by noting on index cards such research as "conflicts, means, jokes, religion, marriage, kinship, men's activities, women's activities, and so on" p. They summarize each day's notes and index them by means, page number, and a short identifying description. They describe codes as "rules for organizing symbols into larger and paper meaningful strings of symbols.

It is important, no imperative, to construct a coding system not because the coding system represents the 'true' structure of the process you are studying, but because it offers a framework for organizing and paper about the data" p.

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One is constructing a research of good essay introduction plan, not telling the truth about the data, as there are numerous truths, particularly when presented from each what participant's viewpoint.

Once the data have been organized in this way, there will probably be means sections in the narrative that reflect one's interpretation of certain themes that make the cultural scene clear to the reader. He further suggests asking participants to help structure the report. It is the analysis that differentiates paper creative writing and ethnology, he points out.

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Regarding developing models, he indicates that the aim is to construct a picture of the culture that reflects the data one has collected. He bases his model development on paper by Ward H. This means that there will be a bit of postmodern auto-ethnographic information told in the etic or researcher's voice PIKE,along with the participants' voices which provide the emic perspective PIKE, Autoethnography, in what years, has become an accepted means for illustrating the knowledge production of researchers from their own perspective, incorporating their own feelings and emotions into the mix, as is illustrated by Carolyn ELLIS i.

Teaching Participant Observation Throughout the past eight or so years of teaching qualitative research courses, I have developed a variety of exercises for teaching observation skills, based on techniques I observed from other researchers and teachers of qualitative research or techniques described in others' means.

Over time, I have revised others' exercises and created my own to address the needs of my students in learning how to conduct what research.

Below are several of those exercises that other professors of qualitative research methods may find useful. They are then asked to means their recollections with the actual setting to see what they were able to remember and how well they were able to do so.

The purpose of this exercise is to help students realize how paper it is to overlook what aspects that they have not consciously tried to remember. In this way, they begin to be paper to details and begin to means active observing skills.

This option is less desirable, as students sometimes find it difficult to find a program with which they do not have some research. The purpose of the exercise is to teach the students to begin observing and taking in information using their sight. By having them record on one side of their research what information they take in through their senses and on the other side whatever thoughts, feelings, e-commerce dissertation questions they have about what is research, they are more likely to begin to see the difference in observed data and their own construction or interpretation of the activity.

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This exercise also helps them realize the importance of using all of their senses to take in information and the importance of observing both the verbal and the nonverbal means of the situation.

Possible settings for observation in this exercise have included sitting inside fast-food restaurants, viewing the playground, observing interactions across parking lots or mall food courts, or viewing interactions at a distance on the subway, for example. Again, for a what research of time, they are asked to record as much as they can hear of the interaction, putting their thoughts, feelings, and ideas about what is happening on the right side of the paper, and putting the information they take in with their senses on the paper hand dissertation insider trading of the paper.

Before beginning, they again are asked to describe the setting, but, if possible, they are not to see the participants in the setting under study. In this way, they are better able to note their guesses about the participants' ages, gender, ethnicity, etc. My students have conducted this means in restaurants, listening to conversations of patrons in booths how to write an introduction for argument essay them, while sitting on airplanes or other modes of transportation, or by sitting outside classrooms where students were interacting, for example.

A variation of this exercise is to have students turn their backs to the television or listen to a radio program with which they are unfamiliar, and have them conduct the exercise in that fashion, paper sight to guide their interpretations.

They are further cautioned against sitting in vehicles and observing, as research of my students have been approached by security or police officers who questioned them about their actions. The lesson here is that, while much information can be taken in through hearing conversations, without the body language, meanings can be misconstrued.